Tim Keller’s Center Church Model and the City to City Network Movement

1. Introduction
2. I. The Architectural Framework: Doctrine, Vision, and Expression
   1. A. Defining the Triad: The Center Church Model
   2. B. The “Hardware”: Keller’s Unchanging Doctrinal Foundation
3. II. Recognizing the Need: Forging a Theological Vision for the Secular City
   1. A. The Context: Manhattan in the Late 20th Century
   2. B. The Response: A Theological Vision for the City
4. III. The Urban Laboratory: Prototyping the Vision at Redeemer Presbyterian Church
   1. A. Expression in Proclamation: Preaching as Cultural Apologetics
   2. B. Expression in Community: A Counter-Culture for the Common Good
5. IV. From Prototype to Movement: Scaling the Vision through Networks and Ideas
   1. A. Framing the Movement: The Power of Codified Ideas
   2. B. Mobilizing the Movement: The City to City Network
   3. C. Measuring the Movement: Quantitative Outcomes
6. Conclusion
   1. Works cited

Abstract: This paper examines the work of Timothy Keller as a case study in theological innovation and movement building. It analyzes his three-part model from Center Church—Doctrinal Foundation, Theological Vision, and Ministry Expression—to analyze how he translated orthodox Reformed doctrine into a culturally resonant vision for secular, urban professionals. The analysis traces the development of this vision from its formulation in response to the socio-cultural context of 1980s New York City, through its prototyping at Redeemer Presbyterian Church, to its scaling into a global movement via the City to City network. By integrating principles of missiological contextualization and sociological theories of movement formation (framing, resource mobilization), the paper argues that Keller’s model provides a robust framework for understanding and potentially replicating missiological innovation in post-Christendom contexts. The paper concludes with an analysis of quantitative data on the movement’s global impact.

Introduction

The work of Timothy Keller, particularly the establishment and growth of Redeemer Presbyterian Church in Manhattan and the subsequent launch of the global City to City (CTC) network, represents a significant case study for students of innovation, leadership, and social movements. The success of this enterprise, especially within the highly secular, pluralistic, and “post-Christian” context of New York City, warrants academic analysis not as hagiography, but as a noteworthy development in late 20th and early 21st-century American religion.1

The central analytical tool for this paper is Keller’s own model, articulated in his magnum opus, Center Church.1 This model posits a three-part architecture for ministry: a stable Doctrinal Foundation, a dynamic Theological Vision, and an adaptable Ministry Expression.3 This framework was not merely a post-hoc description of his ministry; rather, it was the prescriptive blueprint that guided its strategic development from inception.

This paper will argue that Keller’s success can be understood as a three-stage process of missiological innovation, guided by his Center Church framework. He first forged a new theological vision that contextualized his fixed doctrinal foundation for a specific cultural moment. He then prototyped this vision through concrete ministry expressions in an urban laboratory. Finally, he scaled the successful prototype into a global movement by applying principles that align with established sociological theories of framing and resource mobilization.

To demonstrate this thesis, the paper will first provide a detailed exegesis of the Center Church model. It will then apply this framework chronologically, analyzing the identification of the missiological need in 1980s New York, the prototyping phase at Redeemer Presbyterian Church, and the scaling phase through the City to City network. Throughout, the analysis will integrate theoretical insights from the fields of Christian missiology and the sociology of social movements to provide a robust, multi-disciplinary understanding of the Keller phenomenon.

I. The Architectural Framework: Doctrine, Vision, and Expression

To understand the innovation Keller pioneered, one must first grasp the architectural framework he developed. This model addresses a perennial problem in ministry: the struggle to translate deeply held theological beliefs into fruitful, contextually relevant practice.3 Keller’s framework moves beyond the false binary of being either doctrinally “faithful” or pragmatically “successful,” proposing instead the integrated goal of “fruitfulness”—a measure that holds leaders accountable for results without crushing them under expectations that only God can fulfill.1

A. Defining the Triad: The Center Church Model

Keller’s model can be understood through a helpful computing analogy he employs, consisting of three distinct but interconnected layers.5

Doctrinal Foundation (The “Hardware”): This layer represents the non-negotiable, core theological commitments of a church, denomination, or tradition.8 These are the foundational truths derived from Scripture that form the stable, unchanging “operating system” of the ministry.

Ministry Expression (The “Software”): This layer consists of the specific, adaptable programs, methodologies, and practices of a church—its worship style, small group structure, outreach events, and community service initiatives.5 These are the “applications” that can and should change depending on the cultural context and the needs of the community being served.

Theological Vision (The “Middleware”): This is the most crucial and innovative component of the model. Keller defines theological vision as “a faithful restatement of the gospel with rich implications for life, ministry, and mission in a type of culture at a moment in history”.6 It functions as the “middleware” that connects the unchanging hardware of doctrine to the flexible software of ministry expression.8 This vision answers the question: “How do our timeless doctrines speak to the specific questions, idols, and aspirations of the people we are trying to reach right now?” The power of this concept is that it explains how two churches with identical doctrinal foundations can feel and operate in vastly different ways; their theological visions differ, creating distinct ministry expressions.9

B. The “Hardware”: Keller’s Unchanging Doctrinal Foundation

Keller’s innovation was not doctrinal; he operated firmly within the established theological tradition of his denomination, the Presbyterian Church in America (PCA). The PCA’s identity is built on being “Faithful to the Scriptures, True to the Reformed Faith, and Obedient to the Great Commission”.10 This commitment entails strict adherence to the Westminster Confession of Faith and its Larger and Shorter Catechisms as subordinate standards to the Bible.10

The specific, non-negotiable doctrines that formed the “hardware” for Keller’s ministry include the full inspiration, inerrancy, and final authority of the Bible 10; the doctrine of the Trinity 10; the total depravity of humanity, meaning all are lost in sin and helpless to save themselves 12; the sovereignty of God in salvation, who chooses to redeem sinners based on his own mercy and grace 10; justification by faith alone in the atoning work of Jesus Christ 12; and the mandate to proclaim this gospel to the entire world.13 These tenets of historic, Reformed theology provided the fixed parameters within which all subsequent innovation had to operate.

This framework presents a paradox of constrained innovation. Radical creativity in ministry becomes possible precisely because of a rigidly defined, unchanging doctrinal core. The immutability of the Doctrinal Foundation liberates the Theological Vision and Ministry Expression to be highly adaptable and creative. Without this fixed anchor, any attempt at cultural adaptation risks drifting into syncretism—a blending of the gospel with cultural values that compromises its core message. However, with a fixed doctrinal core, adaptation becomes faithful contextualization. This principle explains why Redeemer City to City can effectively train leaders across a “wide array of theological traditions” 6 yet focuses almost exclusively on teaching the theological vision. The doctrinal soundness of the church planters is largely assumed as a prerequisite; the innovative and transferable skill is learning how to build the “middleware” that connects that doctrine to a specific culture. The doctrinal constraints, therefore, are not a barrier to innovation but the necessary foundation for it.

II. Recognizing the Need: Forging a Theological Vision for the Secular City

The first stage of Keller’s innovation process involved a deep analysis of the missiological challenge presented by his target context and the subsequent formulation of a theological vision to meet it.

A. The Context: Manhattan in the Late 20th Century

When Keller arrived in New York City in the late 1980s, he encountered a unique cultural and social landscape. Central to this environment was the emergence of the “yuppie,” or Young Urban Professional.17 This class was defined by high levels of education, significant disposable income, and a demanding professional life.18 Their worldview was shaped by a powerful ideology of meritocracy, where intelligence, credentials, and relentless hard work were seen as the primary credentials for success and status.17 This led to the creation of new, subtle hierarchies of taste and cultural capital, where what one consumed—from food to art—signaled one’s intellectual and social standing.17

The broader cultural milieu of New York was a “hotbed of creativity” and immense diversity, but it was also deeply secular, radically individualistic, and religiously pluralistic.21 It was a quintessential post-Christendom environment, where the language, assumptions, and moral frameworks of traditional Christianity were no longer widely understood and were often viewed with suspicion or hostility.1 Keller and his founding team recognized a significant missiological gap: a near-total absence of churches that were effectively reaching this “sophisticated, secular cultural elite”.29 Existing evangelical churches often felt culturally alienating to this demographic, and new converts from professional circles struggled to find a church where they could bring their skeptical friends and colleagues.29

B. The Response: A Theological Vision for the City

In response to this context, Keller forged a theological vision that he often termed a “gospel third way”.31 This vision carefully navigated between the two poles he saw his audience rejecting: the moralistic, rule-keeping of “religion” (legalism) and the moral freedom of “irreligion” (relativism).1 This vision is famously encapsulated in his summary of the gospel: “We are more sinful and flawed in ourselves than we ever dared believe, yet at the very same time we are more loved and accepted in Jesus Christ than we ever dared hope”.31

This theological vision was not a generic summary of Christianity; it was a precision-engineered message designed to engage the specific cultural idols of its audience. The meritocratic culture of urban professionals was, at its core, a system of works-righteousness, where identity and worth were earned through performance and achievement. Keller’s vision directly confronted this idol of self-actualization and self-salvation. It did so not by simply condemning ambition, but by re-diagnosing the human condition in a way that resonated with the lived experience of his audience. It highlighted a deeper, more profound flaw than professional failure—namely, sin—and offered a solution based not on earning or achieving, but on receiving unmerited grace.27 This reframed the gospel from being “good advice” on how to improve one’s life to being “good news” of a rescue from a crushing burden.8

This process is a textbook example of sound missiological contextualization. As Keller himself described it, contextualization is “giving people the Bible’s answers…to questions about life that people in their particular time and place are asking, in language and forms they can comprehend”.27 It is the work of relating the timeless gospel to a specific culture without compromising its essential truths.37

The effectiveness of this theological vision lay in its function as a form of cultural jujitsu. It took the culture’s core value—meritocracy—and used its own weight against it to reveal its inherent instability. The primary identity narrative of the target audience was built on achievement and intellectual prowess.17 The core doctrine of Keller’s tradition was its polar opposite: salvation by sovereign grace, predicated on the reality of human helplessness (total depravity).12 A direct, confrontational assertion of this doctrine (e.g., “Your achievements are worthless before God”) would have been immediately dismissed as anti-intellectual and offensive. Instead, Keller’s vision affirmed the culture’s high valuation of excellence but re-diagnosed the underlying anxiety, pressure, and loneliness that were the psychological byproducts of a relentless meritocracy. The message was, in essence, “The reason you feel this crushing burden is because you are trying to justify your own existence through your performance, a weight you were never designed to carry.” This reframing made the doctrine of grace not an insult to their intelligence, but a profound and welcome relief. It deconstructed their idol of self-justification by exposing it as unsustainable and then presented the doctrine of justification by faith as a more coherent, humane, and liberating alternative. This masterful application of contextualization bypassed the initial cultural offense to reveal the true, and transformative, “offense of the Gospel”.39

III. The Urban Laboratory: Prototyping the Vision at Redeemer Presbyterian Church

With a theological vision formulated, the next stage was to translate it into concrete, testable ministry expressions. Redeemer Presbyterian Church, founded in 1989, became the urban laboratory for this prototyping phase.29

A. Expression in Proclamation: Preaching as Cultural Apologetics

The most visible expression of the theological vision was Keller’s preaching. His style was consistently described as calm, intellectual, professorial, and conversational—a stark contrast to the more emotive or confrontational styles common in other evangelical circles.28 It was a style intentionally designed for an educated, skeptical audience, one that respectfully anticipated and engaged with their questions, doubts, and objections.28

To demonstrate the gospel’s relevance to all of life, Keller’s sermons masterfully wove together biblical exposition with insights from a wide range of secular sources, including philosophy, classic literature, contemporary art, and popular culture.41 This practice of “cultural apologetics” aimed to “enter, challenge and retell the culture’s stories with the gospel,” showing how the Christian narrative provided more satisfying answers to the culture’s deepest questions than the culture’s own stories did.13 This intellectual engagement was complemented by practical decisions in the worship service. To make the experience accessible and non-threatening for newcomers, the church produced a highly detailed bulletin that scripted the entire service, eliminating any “alarming spontaneity.” Furthermore, a rigorous effort was made to screen all communication for “pious babble”—insider Christian jargon that would be incomprehensible or alienating to outsiders. These practices were a direct outworking of the core value that “excellence is inclusive”.43

B. Expression in Community: A Counter-Culture for the Common Good

The theological vision was also expressed through the church’s community structures and outreach. Community Groups (CGs) were established as the primary vehicle for discipleship, where members could learn to apply the gospel to the realities of their lives.44 Crucially, Redeemer created specific, low-barrier entry points for newcomers, such as “Beta Groups” for those new to the church and “Questioning Christianity Groups” for skeptics. This was a clear expression of a church that expected and welcomed the presence of nonbelievers in its midst.32

The church’s commitment to being “City-centered” found tangible expression in the founding of Hope for New York in 1992.29 This “outward-facing mercy ministry” mobilized congregants to serve the poor and marginalized, demonstrating a commitment to seek the peace and prosperity of the city in practical ways.3 This focus on mercy and justice was a core component of the church’s integrative ministry model.32

Finally, for a congregation composed largely of professionals, a critical ministry expression was the integration of faith and work. Redeemer placed a strong emphasis on equipping its members to see their secular vocations not merely as jobs, but as a primary means through which God cares for the world.46 This vision gave dignity to all forms of work and provided a robust ethical and spiritual framework for navigating the pressures of the marketplace, directly addressing the central life-concern of the target audience.32

These diverse ministry expressions were not simply a collection of disparate programs; they worked in concert to create a holistic “plausibility structure.” In a secular culture where Christian belief can seem implausible, the church community itself must become a compelling argument for the truth of its message. Keller’s intellectually rigorous preaching made the faith thinkable. The church’s commitment to excellence in the arts made the faith beautiful and culturally credible. The compassionate work of Hope for New York made the faith good for the city. The robust theology of work made the faith relevant to daily life. And the open, questioning community groups made the faith experientially accessible. Together, these expressions formed a microcosm, an alternative social reality where the Christian worldview was not just taught but embodied. This holistic embodiment—a “counterculture for the common good”—served as the primary apologetic, making the gospel plausible to a skeptical generation.27

IV. From Prototype to Movement: Scaling the Vision through Networks and Ideas

The final stage of the innovation process involved the transition from a single, successful prototype into a scalable, global movement. This was achieved through the codification of ideas and the creation of an institutional vehicle for their dissemination, a process that can be analyzed through the lens of sociological theories of movement formation.

A. Framing the Movement: The Power of Codified Ideas

A crucial step in scaling the model was translating the tacit knowledge and successful practices of Redeemer into explicit, transferable intellectual capital. Keller’s prolific writing, particularly books like Center Church and The Reason for God, accomplished this codification.3

This process aligns with the concept of “framing” in social movement theory, which posits that movements succeed by constructing and disseminating compelling interpretations of reality.48 Keller’s writings created a powerful “collective action frame” for a generation of church leaders. This frame diagnosed a problem (the church’s general ineffectiveness in reaching secular, global cities), proposed a clear solution (the Center Church theological vision with its commitments to being gospel-centered, city-centered, and movement-centered), and provided a strong motivation for action. Books like The Reason for God equipped countless individuals with the intellectual tools to engage respectfully with skeptics, broadening the movement’s appeal 47, while works on justice and vocation, such as Generous Justice and Every Good Endeavor, further articulated the rich implications of the theological vision, building momentum for a holistic expression of faith.46

B. Mobilizing the Movement: The City to City Network

The institutional vehicle created to scale the Redeemer prototype was Redeemer City to City (CTC), founded in 2001 with the mission to “help leaders build gospel movements in cities”.51 CTC can be understood as the Social Movement Organization (SMO) that operationalized the movement’s goals.

Its strategy is illuminated by resource mobilization theory, which argues that the success of a movement depends on its ability to effectively gather and deploy critical resources.53 CTC’s core function is precisely this:

• Human Resources: It identifies, assesses, trains, and provides ongoing coaching for a global network of church planters and urban ministry leaders.6
• Financial Resources: It provides seed funding and financial support to help new church plants become self-sustaining.56
• Intellectual and Cultural Resources: It creates and distributes a steady stream of content—books, podcasts, online courses, and training materials—that carries the movement’s distinct theological vision and practical DNA.51

Beyond deploying resources, CTC intentionally fosters networks of churches within and between global cities, creating what Keller termed a “gospel ecosystem”.33 This network effect creates a virtuous cycle where churches support one another, share best practices, and collaborate on city-wide initiatives, leading to a “ripple effect” of evangelism and organic multiplication that far exceeds the efforts of any single church.56

C. Measuring the Movement: Quantitative Outcomes

The growth and global reach of this movement can be measured empirically. The data from CTC’s reporting over the years shows a clear trajectory of exponential growth in church planting, leader development, and global presence.

Table 1: Redeemer City to City Global Impact Metrics (Selected Years)

Metric	c. 2014	c. 2016	2020	FY 2023	Cumulative (as of May 2023)
Churches Planted (Cumulative)	>300	387	838	1,633	978
New Churches Launched (in year)	16 (committed)	N/A	90	572	N/A
Global Cities Reached	65	N/A	75	>85	>150
Leaders Trained (Cumulative)	N/A	>10,000	N/A	N/A	79,149
Leaders Trained (in year)	N/A	3,457	N/A	>14,000	N/A

Sources:.42

Note: Data comes from different reports across several years, leading to some inconsistencies in cumulative vs. annual reporting. The table represents a best-effort synthesis of the available figures to show a clear growth trajectory.

The data reveals a dramatic acceleration in the movement’s impact, particularly in the number of churches planted and leaders trained. The network’s expansion from an initial focus on New York to over 150 cities across every continent demonstrates the successful scaling of the model far beyond its original context.

The success of this scaling strategy lies in its ability to resolve the classic tension between being a rigid institution and a fluid movement. Keller’s concept of the church as an “organized organism” provides the blueprint.32 The “organized” component is the centralized hub of CTC, which provides the coherent theological vision (framing), the high-quality training curriculum, and the key resources (resource mobilization). This ensures a degree of quality control and missiological consistency across the network. The “organism” component is the decentralized network of local church planters and leaders. CTC does not demand that new churches become “clones” of Redeemer NYC.45 Instead, it empowers local leaders with the intellectual tools and principles of the theological vision, trusting them to perform their own deep contextualization in their unique urban environments.6 This structure fosters a dynamic interplay, allowing for both global scalability and local adaptability, which is a key driver of its sustained growth.

Conclusion

The journey of Timothy Keller’s work from a prayer group in a Manhattan apartment to a global church-planting movement offers a compelling case study in missiological innovation. The analysis demonstrates a clear, three-stage process guided by the architectural framework of Center Church. First, a fixed, orthodox Doctrinal Foundation served as the anchor for the creative formulation of a new Theological Vision, one that was carefully contextualized to address the unique cultural moment of late 20th-century secular urbanism. Second, this vision was prototyped and refined through a suite of integrated Ministry Expressions at Redeemer Presbyterian Church, which together formed a powerful plausibility structure for the gospel. Finally, this successful prototype was scaled into a global movement through the codification of its ideas and the mobilization of resources via the City to City network.

The ultimate value of the Center Church model is not as a prescriptive template to be copied, but as a heuristic framework—a structured way of thinking that guides leaders through the process of connecting timeless doctrine to timely practice. It teaches how to think about ministry innovation, rather than simply dictating what to do.

In a world increasingly characterized by post-Christendom realities, the Keller case study demonstrates a viable path for historic, orthodox religious traditions to engage meaningfully with secular culture. It charts a course that avoids the pitfalls of rigid irrelevance on one hand and syncretistic compromise on the other. It stands as a powerful example of how a deeply held set of beliefs, when translated through a thoughtful and dynamic theological vision, can fuel a movement of global significance. While further research might explore the model’s applicability in non-urban contexts or its long-term sustainability beyond its founder, its impact thus far provides an invaluable lesson in how ancient faith can beget modern movements.

This report was generated by Google Gemini 2.5 Deep Research using the prompt:
“You are a professor in a doctoral course on Innovation Networks, Thought Leadership & Movement Building at City Vision University. Write a paper for graduate students in the course that explores Tim Keller’s model from Center Church of What to Believe (Doctrinal Foundation), How to See (Theological Vision) and What to Do (Ministry expression) and then applies that to how:

1. Tim Keller recognized the need for a new theological vision for upper-middle class urban professionals that still retained the core doctrine of his denomination

2. He then developed that theological vision and ministry expression in Redeemer Presbyterian Church in New York City (as a prototype)

3. He then helped turn that into a movement through the City to City network and his many books that helped build momentum for his theological vision. Provide data on the outcomes of the City to City network.

Where possible, try to tie in how this followed the principles of both healthy missiology and how movements are formed.”
It was reviewed by Dr. Andrew Sears for accuracy.

Works cited

1. Book Review: Center Church: Doing Balanced, Gospel-Centered Ministry in Your City, by Tim Keller – 9Marks, accessed September 6, 2025, https://www.9marks.org/review/center-church-doing-balanced-gospel-centered-ministry-your-city/
2. “Timothy Keller: Champion for the City” by Michael W. Cunningham – Liberty University, accessed September 6, 2025, https://digitalcommons.liberty.edu/eleu/vol8/iss1/4/
3. Center Church: Doing Balanced, Gospel-Centered Ministry in Your City, accessed September 6, 2025, https://www.wtsbooks.com/products/center-church-timothy-keller-9780310494188
4. Center Church — Timothy Keller, accessed September 6, 2025, https://timothykeller.com/books/center-church
5. Tim Keller, ‘Center Church,’ “Introduction,” Reflection – the peter blog, accessed September 6, 2025, https://thepeterblog.com/2013/01/15/reflections-on-tim-kellers-center-church-introduction-p-13-26/
6. Center Church Theological Vision – Timothy Keller, accessed September 6, 2025, https://timothykeller.squarespace.com/s/CenterChurch_Intro.pdf
7. Review: Center Church by Timothy Keller | For Christ and His Kingdom – WordPress.com, accessed September 6, 2025, https://wheatonblog.wordpress.com/2013/07/22/review-center-church-by-timothy-keller/
8. Center Church by Timothy Keller – “Gospel” – Aaron Armstrong, accessed September 6, 2025, https://aaronarmstrong.co/center-church-by-timothy-keller-gospel/
9. Theological Vision and the 3-Part Balancing Act – ChurchSource, accessed September 6, 2025, https://churchsource.com/blogs/ministry-resources/gospel-city-movement
10. What is the PCA? – PCA Foundation, accessed September 6, 2025, https://pcafoundation.com/about/what-is-the-pca/
11. Doctrinal Standards | Covenant Presbyterian Church, accessed September 6, 2025, https://covpreschurch.org/about-us/doctrinal-standards/
12. What Presbyterians Believe (1960) – PCA Historical Center, accessed September 6, 2025, https://www.pcahistory.org/documents/believe.html
13. Presbyterian Church in America – Wikipedia, accessed September 6, 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presbyterian_Church_in_America
14. Beliefs – pcanet.org, accessed September 6, 2025, https://pcanet.org/beliefs/
15. The PCA’s Beliefs – Trinity Presbyterian Church (PCA), accessed September 6, 2025, https://www.trinityhbg.com/the-pcas-beliefs/
16. Our Denomination—The PCA – Briarwood Presbyterian Church, PCA, accessed September 6, 2025, https://briarwood.org/visitors/about-briarwood/the-pca/
17. Yuppies: Young Urban Professionals and the Making of …, accessed September 6, 2025, https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/enterprise-and-society/article/yuppies-young-urban-professionals-and-the-making-of-postindustrial-new-york/C55EFAB9A1D6B8F678667EB85C4C3D12
18. The Myth of the Middle Class Squeeze: Employment and Income by Class in Six Western Countries, 1980–2020 – PubMed Central, accessed September 6, 2025, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12083865/
19. Anthropology and the rise of the professional-managerial class | HAU: Journal of Ethnographic Theory: Vol 4, No 3, accessed September 6, 2025, https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.14318/hau4.3.007
20. Common People: Class And The 80s – The Awl, accessed September 6, 2025, https://www.theawl.com/2012/08/common-people-class-and-the-80s/
21. Culture ‘Club’: A Look at Early ’80s NYC (and SVA), Now at MoMA …, accessed September 6, 2025, https://sva.edu/features/culture-club-a-look-at-early-80s-nyc-and-sva-now-at-moma
22. New York City in the 1980s: A Cultural Melting Pot for Creativity | Sound of Life, accessed September 6, 2025, https://www.soundoflife.com/blogs/places/new-york-in-the-80s?ref=notesonhope.net
23. Why the 1980s New York Art Scene produced Iconic Artists like Keith Haring and Jean-Michel Basquiat | Maddox Gallery, accessed September 6, 2025, https://maddoxgallery.com/news/378-why-the-1980s-new-york-art-scene-produced-iconic-artists/
24. Culture of New York City – Wikipedia, accessed September 6, 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_New_York_City
25. New York City in the 1980s: Vintage Photos Capture the Gritty, and Groovy Life, accessed September 6, 2025, https://seeoldnyc.com/new-york-city-1980s/
26. Tim Keller on the Decline of Evangelicalism (Part 2 of 4) – Gospel in Life Quarterly, accessed September 6, 2025, https://quarterly.gospelinlife.com/the-decline-of-evangelicalism/
27. Book Review – Center Church: Doing Balanced, Gospel-Centered Ministry in Your City, accessed September 6, 2025, https://sharperiron.org/article/book-review-center-church-doing-balanced-gospel-centered-ministry-your-city
28. The Life and Times of Redeemer Presbyterian Church – The Gospel Coalition, accessed September 6, 2025, https://www.thegospelcoalition.org/article/life-and-times-of-redeemer-presbyterian-church/
29. Redeemer history – Redeemer Churches and Ministries, accessed September 6, 2025, https://www.redeemer.com/learn/about_us/redeemer_history
30. History+of+Redeemer+Presbyterian+Church.pdf – Squarespace, accessed September 6, 2025, https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5d44636cd5f86700012df925/t/679baed773ed084a79a0ba99/1738256088094/History+of+Redeemer+Presbyterian+Church.pdf
31. Tim Keller (pastor) – Wikipedia, accessed September 6, 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim_Keller_(pastor)
32. Center Church by Timothy Keller – “Movement” – Aaron Armstrong, accessed September 6, 2025, https://aaronarmstrong.co/center-church-by-timothy-keller-movement/
33. DOING BALANCED, GOSPEL-CENTERED MINISTRY IN YOUR CHURCH, by Timothy Keller – Books At a Glance, accessed September 6, 2025, https://www.booksataglance.com/book-summaries/center-church-balanced-gospel-centered-ministry-church-timothy-keller/
34. Contextualization in the Late-Modern West – The Gospel Coalition, accessed September 6, 2025, https://www.thegospelcoalition.org/article/contextualization-late-modern-west/
35. Tim Keller – Center Church: What is Contextualization? – YouTube, accessed September 6, 2025, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3eUvwzmV0P8
36. Tim Keller Defines Contextualization – YouTube, accessed September 6, 2025, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6ZOZx5Hm-KU
37. Center Church by Timothy J. Keller | Summary, Quotes, FAQ, Audio – SoBrief, accessed September 6, 2025, https://sobrief.com/books/center-church
38. What does contextualization in missions mean? – Southern Nazarene University, accessed September 6, 2025, https://home.snu.edu/~hculbert/context.htm
39. Contextualization: The Theory, the Gap, the Challenge, accessed September 6, 2025, https://spu.edu/temp/denuol/context.htm
40. Contextualizing Theology and the Gospel – Asia Missions Association, accessed September 6, 2025, https://www.asiamissions.net/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/ChesterChoi.pdf
41. The Preaching of Tim Keller – New Leaven – WordPress.com, accessed September 6, 2025, https://nleaven.wordpress.com/2023/06/02/the-preaching-of-tim-keller/
42. Why I am Grateful for the Life and Ministry of Tim Keller – Gordon Conwell, accessed September 6, 2025, https://www.gordonconwell.edu/blog/why-i-am-grateful-for-the-life-and-ministry-of-tim-keller/
43. Lessons learned from 30 years in ministry – Redeemer, accessed September 6, 2025, https://www.redeemer.com/redeemer-report/article/lessons_learned_from_30_years_in_ministry
44. Standalone – Redeemer Churches and Ministries, accessed September 6, 2025, https://www.redeemer.com/r
45. Tim Keller’s “Center Church” – An Evaluation – Christian Library, accessed September 6, 2025, https://www.christianstudylibrary.org/article/tim-kellers-center-church-%E2%80%93-evaluation
46. How Faith Affects Our Work – Timothy Keller, accessed September 6, 2025, https://timothykeller.com/blog/2014/3/7/how-faith-affects-our-work
47. The Reason for God by Tim Keller – Listening To God, accessed September 6, 2025, https://listeningtogod.org/2020/03/26/the-reason-for-god-by-tim-keller/
48. Opportunities, mobilizing structures, and framing processes – toward a synthetic, comparative perspective on social movements – Cambridge University Press & Assessment, accessed September 6, 2025, https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/B99CB038F6DEB73CD42DAEE0065AFB69
49. An Insider’s Critique of the Social Movement Framing Perspective*, accessed September 6, 2025, https://fbaum.unc.edu/teaching/articles/Soc_Inquiry_1997_Benford.pdf
50. Balancing Word & Deed: Review of Keller’s Serving a Movement – True Charity, accessed September 6, 2025, https://www.truecharity.us/balancing-word-and-deed-a-review-of-kellers-serving-a-movement/
51. Redeemer City To City | New York, NY | Cause IQ, accessed September 6, 2025, https://www.causeiq.com/organizations/redeemer-city-to-city,383773431/
52. Redeemer City to City – Wikipedia, accessed September 6, 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redeemer_City_to_City
53. Social Movement Theory: Resource Mobilization Theory | Research Starters – EBSCO, accessed September 6, 2025, https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/social-sciences-and-humanities/social-movement-theory-resource-mobilization
54. RESOURCE MOBILIZATION THEORY AND THE … – Annual Reviews, accessed September 6, 2025, https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/pdf/10.1146/annurev.so.09.080183.002523
55. Resource Mobilization and Social Movements: A Partial Theory | American Journal of Sociology: Vol 82, No 6, accessed September 6, 2025, https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/226464
56. Redeemer City to City (CTC) – Rise, accessed September 6, 2025, https://rise.redeemer.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/CTC-Executive-Summary_Rise-Campaign-1-1.pdf
57. The Story of City to City and the Birth of 300 Churches – Redeemer Report – Redeemer Churches and Ministries, accessed September 6, 2025, https://www.redeemer.com/redeemer-report/article/the_story_of_city_to_city_and_the_birth_of_300_churches
58. About — City to City North America, accessed September 6, 2025, https://citytocityna.com/about